Introduction: Anxiety, depression and stress are becoming more and more frequent, especially since the COVID-19 health crisis. The main objective of this study was to analyse the predictive power of age, gender, emotional intelligence, and resilience with respect to anxiety, depression, and stress-related symptoms in a Spanish population sample. Method: A total of 427 Spanish participants, between 18 and 83 years of age, were assessed through self-report instruments (TMMS-24; BRCS; BASS-21). Hierarchical regression models (HRM) and non-linear methodologies (qualitative comparative analysis or QCA models) are used. Results: The HRM showed that emotional attention, clarity, and repair significantly predicted anxiety, depression, and stress. Gender also played a significant role, with women showing higher levels of anxiety and stress. Age and resilience were not significant predictors in the HRM. However, the QCA models revealed more nuanced interactions: high depression was linked to young age, high emotional attention, and low emotional clarity and repair. High anxiety was predicted by being female, young, with low emotional regulation, and high emotional attention. High stress was associated with being female, low resilience, and high emotional attention. Conversely, low levels of depression, anxiety, and stress were consistently associated with high resilience and emotional clarity and regulation. Conclusions: We consider these results to be of great interest for gaining a deeper understanding of the interaction between the variables under study. In this way, it will be possible to design more effective interventions that benefit from the maximum knowledge regarding the role of these variables.

Keywords:
Anxiety, depression, stress, emotional intelligence, resilience, sociodemographic characteristics

05_RLP_56_23190_Mental_web

Armstrong, A. R., Galligan, R. F., & Critchley, C. R. (2011). Emotional intelligence and psychological resilience to negative life events. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(3), 331-336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.025

Bardeen, J. R., & Stevens, E. N. (2015). Sex differences in the indirect effects of cognitive processes on anxiety through emotion regulation difficulties. Personality and Individual Differences, 81, 180-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.07.009

Bermejo-Martins, E., Luis, E. O., Fernández-Berrocal, P., Martínez, M., & Sarrionandia, A. (2021). The role of emotional intelligence and self-care in the stress perception during COVID-19 outbreak: An intercultural moderated mediation analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 177, 110679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110679

Bhat, S., & Farooq, T.  (2017). The relationship of emotional intelligence with anxiety among students. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development, 1(6), 1216-1219. https://doi.org/10.31142/ijtsrd5778

Claude, R., & Christopher, R. (2014). Acq [Computer Programme]. Houston, University of Houston-Downtown.

Delgado-Gómez, M. S., Gómez-Díaz, M., Gómez-Sánchez, R., & Reche-García, C. (2019). Relación entre Inteligencia Emocional y Riesgo Psicopatológico en Estudiantes Universitarios. Formación Universitaria, 12(3), 39-46. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-50062019000300039

Delhom, I., Gutierrez, M., Mayordomo, T., & Melendez, J. C. (2018). Does emotional intelligence predict depressed mood? A structural equation model with elderly people. Journal of Happiness Studies, 19(6), 1713-1726. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-017-9891-9

Eng, S., & Woodside, A. G. (2012). Configural analysis of the drinking man: fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analyses. Addictive Behaviors, 37(4), 541-543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.11.034

Extremera, N., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2006). Emotional intelligence as predictor of mental, social, and physical health in university students. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 9(1), 45-51. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1138741600005965

Extremera, N., Fernández-Berrocal, P., Ruiz-Aranda, D., & Cabello, R. (2006). Inteligencia emocional, estilos de respuesta y depresión. Ansiedad y Estrés, 12(2-3), 191-205.

Fernández-Berrocal, P., & Extremera, N. (2016). Ability emotional intelligence, depression, and well-being. Emotion Review, 8(4), 311-315. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073916650494

Fernández-Berrocal, P., Alcaide, R., Extremera, N., & Pizarro, D. (2006). The role of emotional intelligence in anxiety and depression among adolescents. Individual Differences Research, 4(1), 16-27.

Fernández-Berrocal, P., Extremera, N., & Ramos, N. (2004). Validez y fiabilidad de la versión española modificada de la Trait Meta-Mood Scale. Informes Psicológicos, 94(3), 751-755. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.94.3.751-755

Fonseca-Pedrero, E., Paino, M., Lemos-Giráldez, S., & Múñiz, J. (2010). Propiedades Psicométricas de la Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales – 21 (DASS-21) en Universitarios Españoles. Ansiedad y Estrés, 16(2-3), 215-226. https://www.ansiedadyestres.es/sites/default/files/rev/ucm/2010/anyes2010a17.pdf

Fountoulakis, K. N., Karakatsoulis, G., Abraham, S., Adorjan, K., Ahmed, H. U., Alarcón, R. D., Arai, K., Salihu, A., Berk, M., Bjedov, S., Bobes, J., Bobes-Bascaran, T., Bourgin-Duchesnay, J., Bredecean, C.A., Bukelskis, L., Burkadze, A., Cabrera, I.I., Castilla-Puentes, R., Cetkovich, M., Colon-Rivera, H., & Vega-Smirnova, D. (2022). Results of the COVID-19 mental health international for the general population (COMET-G) study. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 54, 21-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.10.004

Gao, W., Ping, S., & Liu, X. (2020). Gender differences in depression, anxiety, and stress among college students: a longitudinal study from China. Journal of Affective Disorders, 263, 292-300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.121

González-Sanguino, C., Ausín, B., Castellanos, M. Á., Saiz, J., López-Gómez, A., Ugidos, C., & Muñoz, M. (2020). Mental health consequences during the initial stage of the 2020 Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) in Spain. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 87, 172-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.040

Górriz, A. B., Etchezahar, B., Pinilla-Rodríguez, D. E., Giménez-Espert, M. C., & Soto-Rubio, A. (2021). Validation of TMMS-24 in Three Spanish-Speaking Countries: Argentina, Ecuador, and Spain. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(18), 9753. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189753

Gurrola, G. M., Balcázar, P., Bonilla, M. P., & Virseda, J. A. (2006). Estructura factorial y consistencia interna de la escala depresión ansiedad y estrés (DASS-21) en una muestra no clínica. Psicología y Ciencia Social, 8(2), 3-7.

Kimhi, S., Marciano, H., Eshel, Y., & Adini, B. (2020). Resilience and demographic characteristics predicting distress during the COVID-19 crisis. Social Science & Medicine, 265, 113389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113389

Kogar, E. Y., & Uslu, A. G. (2021). A Meta-Analysis Study on Gender Differences in Psychological Resilience Levels. Cyprus Turkish Journal of Psychiatry and Psychology, 3(2), 132-143. https://doi.org/10.35365/ctjpp.21.2.15

Lathabhavan, R. (2021). COVID-19 effects on psychological outcomes: How do gender responses differ? Psychological Reports, 126(1), 117-132. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941211040428

Lee, D. (2019). The convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21). Journal of Affective Disorders, 259, 136-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.06.036

Limonero, J. T., Tomás-Sábado, J., Gómez-Romero, M. J., Maté-Méndez, J., Sinclair, V. G., Wallston, K. A., & Gómez-Benito, J. (2014). Evidence for Validity of the Brief Resilient Coping Scale in a Young Spanish Sample. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 17, E34. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2014.35

Liu, Y., Wang, Z., & Lü, W. (2013). Resilience and affect balance as mediators between trait emotional intelligence and life satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(7), 850-855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.12.010

Losada-Baltar, A., Jiménez-Gonzalo, L., Gallego-Alberto, L., Pedroso-Chaparro, M.D. S., Fernandes-Pires, J., & Márquez-González, M. (2021). “We are staying at home.” Association of self-perceptions of aging, personal and family resources, and loneliness with psychological distress during the lock-down period of COVID-19. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 76(2), e10-e16. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbaa048

Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behavior Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335-343. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U

Mao, L., Huang, L., & Chen, Q. (2021). Promoting resilience and lower stress in nurses and improving inpatient experience through emotional intelligence training in China: A randomized controlled trial. Nurse Education Today, 107, 105130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2021.105130

Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (2016). The Ability Model of Emotional Intelligence: Principles and Updates. Emotion Review, 8(4), 290-300. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073916639667

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is Emotional Intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators (pp. 3-31). Basic Books.

Moret-Tatay, C., Muñoz, J. J., Civera, C., Navarro-Pardo, E., & Alcover, C. M. (2015). Psychometric properties and Factor structure of the BRCS in an elderly Spanish sample. Anales de Psicología. 31(3), 1030-1034. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.31.3.188401

Navarro-Bravo, B., Latorre, J. M., Jiménez, A., Cabello, R., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2019). Ability emotional intelligence in young people and older adults with and without depressive symptoms, considering gender and educational level. PeerJ, 7, e6595. http://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6595

Okasha, T. A., Abdelsamei, A. M., Radwan, D. N., Eissa, O. A., & Elrassas, H. H. (2022). Impaired emotional intelligence is related to symptoms severity and suicidal attempts in depression. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 69(1), 56-62. https://doi.org/10.1177/00207640211067887

Peláez-Fernández, M. A., Rey, L., & Extremera, N. (2021). A sequential path model testing: emotional intelligence, resilient coping and self-esteem as predictors of depressive symptoms during unemployment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 697. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020697

Persich, M.R., Smith, R., Cloonan, S., Woods-Lubbert, R., Strong, M., & Killgore, W. D. S. (2021). Emotional intelligence training as a protective factor for mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Depression and Anxiety, 38(10), 1018-1025. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.23202

Ragin, C. C. (2008). Redesigning social inquiry. Fuzzy sets and beyond. University of Chicago Press.

Riehm, K. E., Brenneke, S. G., Adams, L. B., Gilan, D., Lieb, K., Kunzler, A. M., Smail, E. J., Holingue, C., Stuart, E. A., Kalb, L. G., & Thrul, J. (2021). Association between psychological resilience and changes in mental distress during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Affective Disorders, 282, 381-385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.071

Salguero, J. M., Extremera, N., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2012). Emotional intelligence and depression: The moderator role of gender. Personality and Individual Differences, 53(1), 29-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.02.006

Salguero, J. M., Extremera, N., Cabello, R., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2015). If you have high emotional intelligence (EI), you must trust in your abilities: The interaction effect of ability EI and perceived EI on depression in women. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 33(1), 46-56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282914550384

Salovey, P. (2013). Applied emotional intelligence: Regulating emotions to become healthy, wealthy, and wise. In Emotional intelligence in everyday life (pp. 123-135). Psychology Press.

Salovey, P., Bedell, B. T., Detweiler, J. B., & Mayer, J. D. (1999). Coping intelligently: Emotional intelligence and the coping process. In Coping: The psychology of what works (pp. 141-164). Oxford University Press.

Salovey, P., Mayer, J. D., Goldman, S. L., Turvey, C., & Palfai, T. P. (1995). Emotional attention, clarity, and repair: Exploring emotional intelligence using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale. En J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.), Emotion, Disclosure & Health, (pp. 125-151). American Psychological Association.

Sandín, B., Valiente, R. M., García-Escalera, J., & Chorot, P. (2020). Impacto psicológico de la pandemia de COVID-19: efectos negativos y positivos en población española asociados al periodo de confinamiento nacional. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 25(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.5944/rppc.27569

Schafer, K. M., Lieberman, A., Sever, A. C., & Joiner, T. (2022). Prevalence rates of anxiety, depressive, and eating pathology symptoms between the pre-and peri-COVID-19 eras: a meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 298, 364-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.10.115

Sergi, M. R., Picconi, L., Tommasi, M., Saggino, A., Ebisch, S. J., & Spotto, A. (2021). The role of gender in the association among the emotional intelligence, anxiety and depression. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 747702. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.747702

Sinclair, V. G., & Wallston, K. A. (2004). The development and psychometric evaluation of the Brief Resilient Coping Scale. Assessment, 11(1), 94-101. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191103258144

Tomás, J. M., Meléndez, J. C., Sancho, P., & Mayordomo, T. (2012). Adaptation and Initial Validation of the BRCS in an Elderly Spanish Sample. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 28(4), 283-289. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000108

Woodside, A. G. (2013). Moving beyond multiple regression analysis to algorithms: Calling for adoption of a paradigm shift from symmetric to asymmetric thinking in data analysis and crafting theory. Journal of Business Research, 66(4), 463-472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2012.12.021

World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. Journal of American Medical Association, 310(20), 2191-2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053

Xiong, J., Lipsitz, O., Nasri, F., Lui, L. M., Gill, H., Phan, L., Chen-Li., D., Iacobucci, M., Ho, R., Maajeed, A., & McIntyre, R. S. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health in the general population: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 277, 55-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.001